The Science And Understanding Of Psychological Theories For Medical Purposes

1.0           

  Introduction To theories on behavior

1.1             Definition of psychology according to Kalatt (2008) is the systematic study of behaviour aqnd experience. This definition takes cognizant of the mental processes such as thoughts feelings and imagery which though not directly observable but are covert activities of man. The above definition is in support of Meyers’ (1989) definition of psychology as the science of behavior and mental processes. This definition is different from John Wastons definition of psychology as the study of measurable and observable behavior (Waston, 1919).

1.2              Definition of theory

As a science, psychology involves systematic gathering of data through observing and measuring events. Psychological theories, like all scientific theories are general principles which explain and summarize many observations and predict what can be expected to happen in new situations (Moragn, King, Weisz & Schopler, 1993). A theory is psychology can also be defined as a system set of assumptions regarding the cause and nature of behavior (Aamodt, 2007).

2.0             Theoretical perspectives psychological theories

Psychologists differ in their understanding and explanation, causes of behavior of humans. For example two psychologist may observe a behaviour eg aggressive behaviour in a child and give different explanation or theories as per the causes of aggression. The theories they will postulate to explain a behaviour or an event will be dependent on the point of view or perspective from which they are offering their explanations. Theoretical perspective has been defined as an orientation to understanding the causes of human behaviour. (Halgin & Whitbourne, 2009).

It is difficult if not impossible to explain the causes of every behaviour from one theoretical perspective or orientation. It has already been noted that one behaviour can have more than one explanations that fit the possible causes of that behaviour. The differences in the definition of psychology is a reflection of the theoretical points (perspectives) taken by different psychologists.

By the present state of knowledge theories in psychology fall into the following perspectives, namely Biological, behavioural, developmental, cognitive, sociocutural, humanistic. The perspective or theoretical viewpoint taken by a psychologist depends on the bias of the individual psychologist and on what aspect of behaviour under study. Certain perspectives are more appropriate for some behaviours than others (Morgan etal, 1993).

Biological theories or perspective

          Psychologists who are of biological orientation try to explain causes of behaviour from the stand point of the functions of the body particularly the nervous and endocrine (glands) systems. They attribute differences in behaviour to genetic inheritance and biomedical conditions like brain tumour, degeneration of brain tissue as in Alzheimer’s disease, organic brain damage from head injury and substance abuse as well as imbalance of hormones from endocrine gland eg the ovaries, testes, thyroid and adrenal glands.

          Studies using identical twins shows that identical twins brought up in different environments are similar in intelligence, personally and other attributes. The rods and cones in the retina of the eye are necessary for color and dark vision.

Biological theories are involved in motivation. According to Nasluo (1954), the biological needs of hunger, thirst, sex are basic motivations of behaviour. The biological componenet of emotion (physiological arousal) result of release of edrendine and noreadrendine into the blood. Theories for the causes of Schizophreme include structural impairment of the brain itself, (Seidmen, (1983) and excess dopamine activity in some areas of the brain (Snyder, 1981).

Hereditary factors are known to play a role in some depression (Liston & Jarvik, 1976). Law level of the neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinephrine are the synapses has been implicated in the cause of depression (Ethwuegi, 2004).

          These biological theories or perspective are not sufficient to explain all aspects of emotion, depression, Schizophorens, motivations and sensation. (Drive theories of motivation are based on innate biological drives) Orenz L (1973).

Behavioural theories or perspectives

          Psychologists of behqavioural perspective are concerned with what people do or say and not with their thoughts, motives, dreasm and emotions. Psychologists like John Waston & B.F Skinner (1879-1958) are notable names in behavioural theories of behaviour. Behavioural theories believe that behaviour is a product of stimuli, their responses as well as the outcome of those responses (Loeb, 1973). A stimulus is an event that leads to alternation or change in behaviour while the changed in behaviour induced by a stimulus is called a response. A change in behaviour that is relatively occurs as a result of practice or experience is called learning (Morgan et al, 1993).

          Behavioural theories of learning are based on social learning, classical and instrumental conditioning theories. Classical conditioning theory by Ivan Parlor (1960), says that when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus over time, the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit conditioned response. A conditioned response is the response that a conditioned stimulus elicits because of conditioning (taining) procedure (Kalat, 2008).

Theories of anxiety states such as panic attack, Agoraphobia (fear of being trapped and social phobia include conditioned fear reactions in which a person is conditioned to express fear and anxiety in some situations as a result of conditioning (Halgin & Whitbourne, 2009). Emotional responses sometimes become conditioned without our awareness i.e unconsciously (Kalat, 2008).

          The instrumental or operant conditioning theory of behaviour (Skinner, 1953) holds that behaviour is determined primarily by external events (not mental events or processes) and that when a behaviour or response operates on the environment, it may have consequences that can affect the likelihood that the response or behaviour can happen again. An environmental event that is the consequence of a response and makes that response likely to reoccur is called reinforcement. This is why instrumental (operant) conditioning theory is also called reinforcement theory.

There are instrumental theories of socialization and social development (Skinner, 1953); language development (Skinner, 1957). Incentive motivation (Pfaffman, 1982) when a goal itself motivates behaviour.

NOTE: Behaviour therapists believes that abnormal and maladaptive behaviours are learned and persist because they are rewarded. Unrewarded behaviuors get extinguished. Maladaptive behaviours when unrewarded get extinguished. 

          Another behavioural theory is social learning theory (observational learning or imitation) by Albert Bandura (1977) in which the learner imitates the behaviour of another person (the models). Many things we do such as dancing, driving, aggression, dressing, speaking are acquired through imitating other people particularly if such behaviours are reinforced for the models.

Cognitive theories  

Cognitive refers to the processing of information that we receive through the senses (Morgan et al, 1993) cognitive activities include thinking, attention (tendency to respond to some stimuli more than others of any given time or to remember some more than others (Kalat 2008); memory, problems solving, and comprehension of our social environment. Cognition can then be said to involve the manner in which each of us comes to know about our world (Kogan & Kogan, 1970).

          Cognitive theories or viewpoints explain the contributions of an individual’s thoughts and knowledge to emotions and beahviour. Some cognitive theories are as follows.

·        Aaron Becks becks cognitive theory of depression (1967). Depressed people have a negative view of the self, the world and the future and draw wrong conclusion about their experiences.

·        Piagets cognitive theory of development according to Piaget (1950) a child’s intellectual development is by construction of new mental processes as the child interacts with his environment, and not merely by an accumulation of experience or maturation.

·        Encoding-Storage-Retrieval processes theory of memory. This explains the district processes involved in memory.

·        Alkinson-Shiffrin (1968) theory of memory. This is one of the information. Processing theories of memory. This model of memory sees memory as  device like digital computer that takes pieces of information, processes them in steps or stages and then produces an output.

·       Cognitive-Appraisal theory of emotion. This theory by Richard Lazarus and other (1970) say that the emotion we feel result from appraisals, or evaluations of information coming from the environmental situation and from within the body.

  Out her anger on her little child instead of her husband who had provoked her.

Psychodynamic perspective is the basis of the following theories.

·        Psychosexual theory of development by Sigmund Freud in which different motives and body regions influence the child at different stages of growth with effects persisting in the form of adult personality traits. The psychosexual stages are oral, onal, phdid, latent and genital stages.

·        Psychodynamic theory of structure of personality. According to Freud, the personality consists of the id, the ego and the superego which interact with each other.

·        Psychodynamic theory of abnormal behaviouring. According to Freud painful and embarking thoughts that are banished into unconsciousness (repression) can led to neurosis. Rigid use of defense mechanisms can lead to psychological disorder (Freud, 1951).

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES 

Theories based in humans to perspective emphasis an individuals sense of self worth and effectiveness without the society. Humanistic theories focus upon the individual’s subjective perceptions of self, the world and the self within the world (Morgan etal, 1993). The central idea is humanistic theories is self concept or self image. Hall & Lindzey (1970) defined self concept (self-image) as the attitudes, feelings, perceptions and evolutions of self as an object.

The following are humanistic theories:

i.       Rogers self theory:

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) in his self or person centered theory focused on the uniqueness of each individual and the importance of taking each individual to achieve maximum fulfillment of potential, and the individuals need to honestly confront the reality of his or her experience in the world. Carl Rogers (1951) postulated that a well adjusted person’s self-image should match the person’s experience. A mismdch between self-image or self concept with reality (or experience) leads to psychological disorder.

ii.     Maslow’s Self Actualization Theory:

Abraham Maslow believed that every person has an essential nature that seeks to realize its full potentials. Achieving one’s potentials satisfies the need for self-actualization and understanding of ourselves. The need for self actualization is of the apex of Maslow’s pyramid of human needs. The highest growth need of self actualization is reached when the lower biological, safety, psychosocial needs of how and affliction and ego (esteem) needs are met (Maslow, 1954).

SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

          Theories within the sociocultural perspective emphasize, the ways that behavior is affected by interactions among individuals and their socio-cultural environment. Social forces that can influence an individual’s behavior include the family, church (or any religious organization), school, peer group. The society at large. Theories of socio cultural perspective are mainly found in the dormain of social psychology and they include the following.

·        Role theory (Biddle, 1979). Roles theory holds that a substantial proportion of observable, day-to-day social behaviour is simply persons carrying out their roles, much as actors carry out their roles on the stage or footballers perform theirs on the field. A roles is a set of functions performed by the person for the group (Delamater & Myers, 2011). Individuals usually carry out their roles and perform in accordance with the norms of the group. Norms are roles which specify how a person should behave, what rewards will result for good performance of assigned roles and the punishment for non-performance.

·        Reinforcement theory (Operant conditioning). Reinforcement theory is based on operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner (1953). This is operant or instrumental conditioning applied to the social environment. Reinforcement theory holds that people are likely to perform a specific behavior, if it is followed directly by the occurrence of something pleasurable or by removing something aversive, likewise people will move likely avoid performing a particular behavior if it is followed by the occurrence of something aversive or by the removal of something pleasant. A reinforcement is a consequence that follows directly from a behavior and strengths that likelihood of the behavior reoccurring. Social approval is a reinforcement for many behaviors.

·        Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory views social relationship primarily as exchanges of goods and services among persons. People participate in relationships only if they find that the relationships provide profilable outcomes when compared with other alternative relationship (Humans, 1974).

·        Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977)

According to this learning theory, one person (the learner) can acquire new behavior or responses by observing the behavior of another person (the model).

CONCLUSION

Some theoretical perspectives explain some areas of psychology more than others for example the psychodynamic theories explain unconscious determinants of behavior more than any other orientation. Biological theory is not enough to explain all aspects of depression and schizophrema. Social issues come into play in depression and schiziphitema. None theoretical orientation explains all aspects of human behavior. All the theories can be accommodated within a bropschosocial perspective which works at the causes of a behavior or uneven from many new points.

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